Recent experimental observations have revealed clues to various catalytic processes occurring: 1) during the 0.01 pico-second time interval during which chemical reactants form bonds with the surface of a catalyst, causing the emission of charge carriers, such as electrons and holes; 2) during the picosecond time interval during which reactants adsorb and lose energy in quantum steps after becoming trapped at a potential well between an adsorbate and a catalyst surface, producing electronic friction, charge carrier currents and phonon emission; and 3) during the nanosecond and longer time intervals during which reaction intermediates and products radiate electromagnetic energy, either while trapped on a catalyst surface or immediately after escaping it. These processes entail three energy releasing processes, namely: 1) charge carrier emission (electrons and holes), 2) phonon emission and 3) photon emission.
The discovery of these pre-equilibrium emissions provides new pathways to convert the high grade chemical energy available during pre-equilibrium phases into useful work. The term "pre-equilibrium" refers to the period, however brief, during which the products of reactions have not yet come to thermal equilibrium. These products include energy emissions, such as charge carriers; high frequency phonons normally associated with the optical branch lattice vibrations and with acoustic branch vibrations of similar wavelength and energy; and excited state chemical product species.
Prior to the discovery of these rapid energy emission pathways, the energies resulting from a catalytic process, such as the heat of adsorption and the heat of formation, were considered to be heat associated with an equilibrium condition. Indeed, after tens of femtoseconds, emitted charge carriers have thermalized and after a few to hundreds of picoseconds, emitted phonons have thermalized.